Emerging First Urban Settlements on Indus Hakra Rivers and Associated Lands in South Asia: Case Study from Upper Sindh, Pakistan

Abstract

South Asia is a unique part of earth where human lived as is claimed in other parts of the Globe. Tracing the historical sequence of early South Asians; it was the 2800–2600 BCE phase when a cultural sequence and process consolidated socio-economic complexity within communities resulting existing mega urban centers.

This paper re-evaluates this phase of social complexity through archaeological data collected from Baluchistan Highland lands, Indus and Hakra river catchments and eastern Guajarati and Rajasthani regions where the observed urban growth pressed lead scholars to argue the social development adopting theoretical models for gathered data. Among the debating scholars, the strong integrating perspectives came from Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, Jim G. Shaffer, Rita P. Wright, Gregory L. Possehl, and Muhammad Rafique Mughal and broader anthropological frameworks proposed by Elman R. Service, Morton H. Fried, and Norman Yoffee. Their debate is highlighted in this paper based on field data which illustrate resilient factors of urban growth in South Asia.

To comprehend the issue, the case study is brought here from the region of upper Sindh where two rivers flowed i.e. Indus in plains and Hakra flowed along the semi desert environment. This region has remained intensively strategic where the communities had inter and intra community interaction with 122 documented settlements of Highland of Baluchistan; River plain populations of the Ravi, Srikhola, Rehman Dheri, Taloor, Nuhato; and in south Gujarati communities. Additionally, in and around of the case study region of present research 29 more settlements are added in previously 122 documented settlements. The case study region has mega city of Mohenjo-Daro in west, Lakhanjo-Daro in immediate northwest, Dholavira and Lothal in east and in North Ganweriwala city. The present analysis is based on comprehending the nature of 29 settlements; their capabilities of production, consumptions, trade and exchange which may highlight the changes and social diversity and intensity. The present analysis also focuses on the self-sufficiency and dependency or totally reliance on the neighboring communities? are the main issues addressed in this paper.

Key Words: Artisan, hierarchy, heterarchy, interaction, social complexity, Indus Civilization.